In the vast expanse of our oceans, marine animals have mastered the art of survival through the formation of symbiotic relationships. These partnerships, often unexpected and complex, are crucial for maintaining the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. Our exploration delves into the intricate world of marine symbiosis, where each creature plays a pivotal role in the health and resilience of their underwater community.
Key Takeaways
Sea otters, once overlooked, are now recognized as pivotal in restoring marine ecosystems, particularly in stabilizing salt marshes and influencing seagrass health.
Artificial algae and other man-made structures can mimic natural habitats to support early ecological communities, although their effectiveness varies under ocean acidification.
Urchin aquaculture is emerging as a novel solution to help restore kelp forests, balancing the need for marine conservation with human appetites.
Sea stars, vital to marine health, face increasing threats from marine heatwaves, underscoring the need for research on resilience and adaptation to climate change.
Beavers, traditionally seen as pests, are gaining recognition for their role in urban landscape restoration, improving wetlands, wildlife habitats, and water quality.
Unlikely Heroes of the Deep: Sea Otters' Role in Ecosystem Restoration
The Surprising Impact of Apex Predators
When we think of ecosystem restoration, apex predators might not be the first helpers that come to mind. Yet, as researchers like Hughes and Castorani suggest, these top-tier animals play a pivotal role in the health and structure of their environments. It's not just about the big and the bold; it's about balance and biodiversity.
Sea otters, for instance, have shown us how a single species' appetite can ripple through an ecosystem, influencing everything from crab populations to erosion rates. Their reintroduction has been more than a feel-good conservation story; it's been a lesson in ecological engineering.
Here's what the otters have taught us:
Predators can help maintain or restore ecosystem balance.
Their influence extends beyond their immediate prey, affecting entire food webs.
Conservation efforts should consider the role of predators, not just as species to be saved but as active participants in ecosystem management.
While the otters haven't reversed existing damage, their presence has been crucial in slowing further degradation. This insight opens up new avenues for how we approach conservation and restoration, with a renewed respect for the interconnectedness of all life beneath the waves.
Sea Otters and the Salt Marsh Symphony
Imagine a conductor waving their baton, orchestrating a symphony of life in the salt marshes. Well, sea otters are the unlikely maestros in this aquatic ensemble. With their return to estuaries like Monterey Bay, these furry friends are doing more than just looking cute while cracking open shellfish on their bellies.
Sea otters are pivotal in stabilizing these vital ecosystems, munching away on shore crabs that would otherwise cause havoc. It's a classic case of an apex predator keeping things in check, but with a twist. By curbing the crab population, otters indirectly protect the marsh from erosion, safeguarding a habitat that's a haven for countless other species.
Erosion isn't the only thing these otters are combating. Their dining habits also contribute to the health of seagrass, which is crucial for carbon sequestration and water filtration. Here's the breakdown of their impact:
Crab consumption: Otters keep crab numbers in check, which reduces the predation on marsh-dwelling creatures.
Ecosystem balance: With fewer crabs to disturb them, plants and other organisms thrive, leading to a more robust marsh.
Seagrass support: Healthy marshes support seagrass, which in turn supports a diverse marine life.
So next time you see a sea otter, give a nod to these ecosystem engineers who are silently composing a healthier ocean, one crab at a time.
The Ripple Effect: Otters Influencing Seagrass Health
It turns out that sea otters are not just adorable faces with a penchant for back-floating and shellfish snacking. These furry marine maestros are playing a pivotal role in the health of seagrass beds. By munching on crabs, otters indirectly foster the growth of seagrass, which is crucial for a healthy marine ecosystem.
Otters' appetite for crabs leads to fewer crabs to prey on seagrass.
With less predation, seagrass beds can flourish, creating a more stable marine environment.
This in turn supports a diverse range of marine life, from the tiniest invertebrates to the largest fish.
The cascading effect of otter predation goes beyond what meets the eye. As researchers like Brent Hughes have discovered, these top predators are essential in stabilizing salt marshes and reducing erosion. It's a classic case of an apex predator shaping the landscape, or in this case, the seascape, in ways we're just beginning to understand.
Building Beneath the Waves: Artificial Algae and Early Ecological Communities
Mimicking Nature: Successes and Challenges
In the quest to bolster marine biodiversity, artificial structures have been deployed with the aim of offsetting habitat loss. These man-made marvels are designed to imitate the complexity of natural habitats, like the intricate coralline algae, and they've shown promise as nurseries for burgeoning sea life. The success of these artificial turfs in nurturing early stage ecological communities is a win for conservationists.
However, it's not all smooth sailing. The effectiveness of these habitats can vary, and the challenges are as diverse as the species they aim to support. Here's a quick dive into the mixed bag of results:
Artificial habitats can provide a safe haven for crustaceans, molluscs, and polychaetes.
Ocean acidification (OA) poses a significant threat, yet these mimics seem to hold their own against its effects.
The absence of a biologically active substrate in artificial habitats doesn't necessarily spell disaster for diversity and abundance.
While these findings are encouraging, experts caution that continued success hinges on careful monitoring and the integration of additional conservation strategies. Addressing issues like nutrient pollution and sea level rise remains critical, alongside leveraging the strengths of native predators and food webs for those 'quick wins' in ecosystem restoration.
Ocean Acidification and Biodiversity on Artificial Reefs
As we dive deeper into the effects of ocean acidification on marine life, it's fascinating to see how artificial reefs are holding up. Early studies are showing that these man-made ecosystems are surprisingly resilient. The diversity and abundance of species like crustaceans, mollusks, and various algae seem unfazed by the changing pH levels.
But it's not all smooth sailing. Some critters, particularly those with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, are feeling the pinch. Ocean acidification can mess with their ability to calcify, leading to weaker structures and a domino effect on the ecosystem. Here's a quick snapshot of what's happening:
Resilience: Artificial reefs are showing a strong biological response, maintaining a stable community composition even as the seas get more acidic.
Vulnerability: Creatures that rely on calcification are under threat, with potential impacts on the food web and reef integrity.
Adaptation: There's ongoing research into how these ecosystems can adapt and what this means for future marine restoration efforts.
While the full picture is still emerging, it's clear that artificial reefs are a valuable tool in our marine conservation kit. They're not just a Band-Aid for biodiversity loss but a living laboratory where we can learn and adapt our strategies in the face of climate change.
The Future of Artificial Habitats in Marine Restoration
As we dive deeper into the realm of marine restoration, the future of artificial habitats looks as vibrant as a coral reef teeming with life. The success of these man-made ecosystems hinges on our ability to mimic nature's intricate designs. Artificial structures, like flexible turfs that emulate coralline algae, have shown promise as nurseries for burgeoning marine communities.
Yet, the journey is not without its challenges. Ocean acidification, a byproduct of our carbon footprint, casts a shadow over these artificial havens. It's a complex puzzle, but one we're committed to solving. Here's what we're focusing on:
Monitoring the long-term effects of artificial habitats on local biodiversity.
Scaling up research to understand how these structures impact larger ecosystem dynamics.
Collaborating with communities to develop adaptive strategies that support both marine life and human interests.
The road ahead is as vast as the ocean itself, but with continued innovation and partnership, artificial habitats could become cornerstones of marine conservation.
Munching Our Way to Marine Conservation: The Urchin Solution
Kelp Forests: The Underwater Jungles at Risk
Imagine diving into a world where towering kelp fronds sway with the currents, creating an underwater jungle teeming with life. These kelp forests are more than just beautiful; they're vital to marine ecosystems, providing food and shelter for countless species. But, they're under threat.
Kelp forests are facing a crisis, and it's one that could unravel the intricate web of life they support. Rising sea temperatures, pollution, and the voracious appetite of sea urchins are all contributing to their decline. Here's what's at stake:
Biodiversity: Kelp forests are home to a diverse array of marine life, from tiny invertebrates to large fish.
Coastal protection: These underwater jungles buffer coastlines against the erosive power of waves.
Carbon sequestration: Kelp absorbs carbon dioxide, playing a crucial role in mitigating climate change.
The fight to save these lush underwater canopies is on, and it's a battle we can't afford to lose. Innovative solutions like urchin aquaculture are being explored as a way to turn the tide. By munching our way through the problem, we might just give kelp forests the breathing room they need to recover.
Urchin Aquaculture: A Delicious Dilemma
The rise of urchin aquaculture presents a tasty solution to the overgrazing of kelp forests, but it's not without its challenges. Balancing the demand for these spiny delicacies with the health of marine ecosystems is a culinary conundrum.
Urchins, when farmed responsibly, can help restore kelp forests by reducing overgrazing.
However, the process must be carefully managed to avoid disrupting local food webs or promoting unsustainable practices.
As we dive deeper into the world of aquaculture, it's crucial to consider the ripple effects our appetites have on the underwater world. The goal is to create a sustainable model that benefits both our plates and the planet.
Balancing Ecosystems and Appetites
It's a delicate dance between conservation and consumption, and it seems we might just be able to tip the scales in favor of the environment by munching on the very problem itself. Urchin aquaculture is not just about satisfying our seafood cravings; it's a strategic move to restore the balance in kelp ecosystems.
Restoration through Predation: By cultivating urchins, we indirectly bolster kelp forests, as these spiny critters are kept in check, preventing them from overgrazing on these vital underwater jungles.
Sustainable Seafood: Farmed urchins offer a guilt-free delicacy, aligning our appetites with ecological needs.
The challenge lies in maintaining this balance without tipping over. As we savor the sea's bounty, we must remain vigilant, ensuring that our solutions for today don't become tomorrow's problems. After all, the health of our oceans is on the line, and it's a responsibility we all share.
Heatwave Havoc: The Plight of Sea Stars
Marine Heat Waves and Keystone Predators
As the ocean's temperature rises, the delicate balance of marine ecosystems is thrown into disarray. Marine heat waves are not just a passing trend; they're a red flag signaling distress beneath the waves. These periods of unusually high water temperatures can have profound effects on marine life, particularly on keystone predators like sea stars.
Sea stars, often the unsung heroes of the tidal zones, play a crucial role in maintaining the diversity and productivity of their habitats. But as the mercury climbs, their ability to thrive and perform their ecological duties is compromised. Here's how the heat impacts them:
Disruption of reproductive cycles
Slower growth rates
Increased susceptibility to diseases
The ripple effects are felt throughout the ecosystem, as the absence or decline of these predators can lead to unchecked populations of their prey, which in turn can overgraze and decimate vital habitats like kelp forests. It's a stark reminder that the health of these predators is inextricably linked to the overall well-being of our oceans.
The Resilience and Risks Facing Sea Stars
Sea stars, those charismatic echinoderms, are more than just a pretty face on the ocean floor. They're pivotal in maintaining the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. But as the seas warm, these creatures are facing an uphill battle for survival. Their resilience is remarkable, yet the risks are mounting with each passing heatwave.
Marine heat waves are not just a temporary inconvenience for sea stars; they can lead to physiological stress, and in extreme cases, mortality or local extinctions. It's a complex game of adaptation, where sea stars must build tolerance to not only the heat but also to the dynamic variability of their estuarine homes.
Rising temperatures can alter growth and reproduction rates.
Extreme temperatures can cause physiological stress.
The combination of climatic and anthropogenic stressors presents a multifaceted threat.
The future of sea stars hinges on our understanding and action. As researchers dive deeper into the effects of climate change, it's clear that the survival of these keystone predators is crucial for the health of our oceans. It's a race against time, and every degree of warming counts.
Climate Change: A Hot Topic for Marine Life
As the seas get warmer and the storms more severe, our marine buddies are feeling the heat. Climate change isn't just about longer summers and melting ice caps; it's a complex beast that messes with the ocean's chemistry and, in turn, the lives of those who call it home.
Ocean acidification, a sneaky side effect of increased CO2 levels, is like a wrench thrown into the delicate machinery of marine ecosystems.
Temperature spikes can push species to the brink, causing physiological stress or even local extinctions.
Extreme events, such as heatwaves and hypoxia, are becoming more frequent and intense, putting extra pressure on already vulnerable habitats.
But it's not all doom and gloom. With cutting-edge tech like autonomous observing platforms and high-frequency sensor arrays, we're getting a clearer picture of how these changes play out. This data is crucial for crafting strategies to safeguard our shellfish friends and their estuarine stomping grounds. The challenge is real, but so is our determination to adapt and overcome.
Beavers: The Ecosystem Engineers We Didn't Know We Needed
From Pests to Partners: Embracing Beavers in Urban Landscapes
Once dubbed as nuisances, beavers are now being hailed as ecosystem engineers in urban settings. Their natural behaviors, which were once the bane of city planners, are being leveraged to bring about substantial environmental benefits.
Simple tricks have transformed these furry critters from pests to partners. By mimicking natural processes, beavers can help restore wetlands and improve water quality. Here's how:
Beavers build dams, which create wetlands that serve as natural filters for pollutants.
These wetlands provide habitats for a variety of wildlife, increasing biodiversity.
The presence of beavers can help to stabilize water flows and reduce erosion.
Embracing beavers in urban landscapes isn't just about tolerating them; it's about recognizing and harnessing their ability to contribute positively to our environment. As we continue to face urban ecological challenges, it's clear that these industrious animals could play a pivotal role in the green solutions of tomorrow.
The Beaver Effect: Wetlands, Wildlife, and Water Quality
Beavers, often seen as quaint dam builders, are actually masterful ecosystem engineers. Their knack for creating wetlands can have profound effects on water quality, wildlife habitats, and even climate change mitigation. By simply doing what beavers do best, they can transform landscapes for the better.
One of the most striking benefits of beaver activity is the improvement in water quality. As they dam streams and create ponds, beavers inadvertently filter out pollutants and sediments. This natural filtration system can be a game-changer for ecosystems suffering from human-induced pollution.
Wetlands act as nature's kidneys, purifying water and recharging groundwater supplies.
The ponds and channels created by beavers provide critical habitats for a myriad of species.
Beavers' work can help mitigate the effects of climate change by sequestering carbon in newly formed wetlands.
It's time we recognize the value of these furry engineers and consider them allies in our efforts to restore and maintain healthy ecosystems. After all, a little beaver diligence goes a long way in ensuring a thriving environment for countless organisms, including us humans.
Simple Tricks for Complex Environmental Benefits
Sometimes, the most effective solutions are also the simplest. Take beavers, for instance. These furry engineers have a knack for transforming landscapes with just a few gnaws and some strategically placed sticks and mud. Their dams create wetlands, which serve as biodiversity hotspots and natural water filters.
Wetlands provide critical habitat for a myriad of species.
They act as natural sponges, soaking up floodwaters and releasing them slowly.
These areas also trap sediments and pollutants, improving water quality downstream.
It's not just about building dams; it's about recognizing the ripple effects these actions have on the entire ecosystem. By embracing beavers in urban landscapes, we're not just solving the problem of pesky chewed trees. We're investing in a self-maintaining system that enhances biodiversity, mitigates flood risks, and purifies water—all with minimal human intervention. It's a win-win for nature and our communities.
The Shell Game: How Climate Change Affects Coastal Shellfish
Estuaries Under Pressure: The Multi-Stressor Challenge
Estuaries are the unsung heroes of coastal regions, teeming with life and providing critical services to both marine and human communities. But these vibrant ecosystems are facing an uphill battle against a barrage of stressors. Climate change is the ringleader, altering the very fabric of estuarine environments with its long-term biogeochemical changes.
Warming temperatures, hypoxia, acidification, and harmful algal blooms are just a few of the challenges that shellfish and other estuarine inhabitants must navigate. These stressors don't act in isolation; they often combine to create a perfect storm of environmental pressure:
Additive effects pile on, making it harder for organisms to cope.
Synergistic interactions can amplify the damage beyond what each stressor would cause alone.
Antagonistic effects, while less common, can sometimes offset the harm.
The complexity of these interactions means that predicting outcomes for estuarine life is no simple task. With the field of multi-stressor research still in its infancy, there's a lot we don't know about how these factors will shape the future of our coastal ecosystems. But one thing is clear: the resilience of estuaries is being tested like never before.
Shellfish in the Climate Crosshairs
Coastal shellfish, the unsung heroes of estuaries, face an uncertain future as climate change intensifies. These vital creatures are at the mercy of a warming ocean, with its complex cocktail of stressors that threaten their survival. Shellfish populations, which have long supported human communities, are now grappling with the consequences of our actions.
Warming temperatures can disrupt shellfish growth and reproduction.
Extreme heat may cause physiological stress or even lead to local extinctions.
The combined effects of warming, hypoxia, acidification, and harmful algal blooms are just beginning to be understood.
To protect these keystone species, we must deploy advanced monitoring systems. Autonomous platforms and high-frequency sensors are crucial for tracking the shifting patterns in our estuaries. Only with this knowledge can we hope to mitigate the impacts and preserve the delicate balance of these ecosystems.
Adapting Aquaculture in the Face of Change
As the climate throws curveballs at our coastal communities, the resilience of shellfish populations is being put to the test. Adaptation is key in the face of warming waters and acidification, but it's not just about survival; it's about thriving. Here's how aquaculture is stepping up to the plate:
Innovating breeding programs to enhance phenotypic plasticity, giving shellfish the flexibility they need to cope with changing conditions.
Scaling up physiological studies to better understand the impacts on shellfish populations, ensuring we're not just reacting, but proactively managing change.
Fostering collaboration between researchers and local communities to develop adaptive strategies that protect our precious shellfish resources.
It's a delicate dance of science and nature, but by embracing these challenges, aquaculture can continue to sustainably support both ecosystems and economies.
Symbiotic Seas: Unveiling the Partnerships Below the Surface
The Intricate Dance of Marine Mutualism
Dive into the depths of the ocean, and you'll find a world where the art of give-and-take isn't just polite—it's essential for survival. Marine mutualism is a delicate ballet, where each partner brings something to the table, or in this case, the coral reef.
Habitat-forming species craft complex homes that buzz with life, offering shelter and sustenance to a myriad of marine critters.
These underwater architects, in turn, thrive on the activities of their tenants, creating a cycle of interdependence that's as intricate as it is beautiful.
But it's not all about the natural; humans have stepped into the choreography with artificial structures aiming to mimic these relationships. The goal? To offset habitat loss and bolster biodiversity. Yet, the success of these man-made habitats is a mixed bag, a reminder that nature's dance is a tough act to follow.
Coral Reefs and Their Colorful Cohorts
Coral reefs are often referred to as the rainforests of the sea, teeming with life and vibrant colors. At the heart of these bustling underwater cities are the corals themselves, forming the backbone of an incredibly diverse ecosystem. But it's the symbiotic relationships within these reefs that truly showcase nature's interconnectedness.
One of the most fascinating partnerships is between corals and the zooxanthellae, tiny algae that live within the coral's tissues. This mutualistic relationship is a perfect example of give-and-take:
The algae provide the corals with essential nutrients through photosynthesis.
In return, the corals offer the algae a protected environment and the compounds they need to survive.
Yet, this delicate balance is threatened by environmental changes, such as ocean acidification and rising temperatures. These stressors can lead to coral bleaching, where corals expel their colorful algae, leaving behind stark white skeletons. It's a stark reminder of the fragility of these underwater partnerships and the need for conservation efforts to protect them.
When Predators and Prey Collaborate
In the grand tapestry of the ocean, the threads of predator and prey are woven tightly together, often in ways that defy our expectations. Predators, typically seen as threats, can play pivotal roles in maintaining the balance of marine ecosystems. Their presence can lead to healthier, more diverse habitats, which is something conservationists are starting to take note of.
Hughes and Castorani highlight the importance of top predators in structuring ecosystems and their potential conservation benefits.
In places like Florida's estuaries, nutrient pollution is a major issue. Here, leveraging native predators and food webs can offer some 'quick wins' in the fight against environmental degradation.
It's a delicate dance of nature, where the predator isn't just a villain in the story but a key player in the ecosystem's health and restoration. As we rethink our approach to marine conservation, the inclusion of these unlikely allies might just be the missing piece in the puzzle of ecological recovery.
Predators as Protectors: Rethinking Our Approach to Restoration
The Controversial Role of Top Predators in Ecosystem Health
The debate around top predators in ecosystem health is as deep as the ocean itself. It's clear that these apex predators can be ecosystem architects, shaping their environment in profound ways. But should we actively reintroduce them to restore ecological balance? That's where the waters get murky.
Hughes points out the significant structuring role top predators play, yet cautions against hasty introductions without careful consideration.
Experiments like those at Elkhorn Slough, where otters were excluded from certain areas, offer valuable insights. By comparing these zones, researchers observed firsthand the predators' impact on crab populations and plant matter.
The ripple effects of predator reintroduction aren't just theoretical. The Yellowstone wolves are a testament to the transformative power of top predators. Their return led to healthier vegetation and more stable riverbanks, showcasing a domino effect that benefits the entire ecosystem.
As Castorani suggests, the evidence is mounting that predators can be allies in conservation. The sea otters' influence on salt marsh erosion is just one more piece of the puzzle, proving that sometimes, the best way to hold the ground is to let the predators roam.
Reintroduction and Recovery: A Delicate Balance
Bringing back top predators isn't just about seeing these majestic creatures roam again; it's about hitting the reset button on ecosystems that have gone a bit haywire without them. Take the Elkhorn Slough otters, for example. Their comeback isn't just a feel-good story; it's a tale of ecological dominoes falling into place. The otters munch on crabs, which means fewer burrows in the marsh, leading to less erosion and a sturdier home for all.
But let's not get ahead of ourselves. Reintroducing predators is a bit like baking a soufflé - it requires precision, patience, and a bit of luck. Here's why it's so tricky:
Timing is everything: Release them too early or too late, and the whole thing could flop.
Habitat readiness: The environment has to be prepped and ready to support them.
Community buy-in: Locals need to be on board, or it's an uphill battle.
Researchers are learning that these keystone species do more than just balance the food web; they're the architects of their habitats. And while the data might be mostly correlational, the story it tells is compelling. It's a reminder that every creature, big or small, has a role to play in the grand tapestry of life.
Predatory Influence: Beyond the Food Web
When we think about predators, we often picture them at the top of the food chain, impacting their prey and perhaps a few competitors. But their influence extends far beyond the immediate hunt. Predators can be pivotal in maintaining the balance of entire ecosystems, shaping them in ways that are only beginning to be understood.
They control populations of smaller species, preventing overgrazing and depletion of resources.
Their presence can deter other species from settling in areas where they would otherwise dominate.
Predators can even affect the physical environment, indirectly influencing factors like plant growth and soil composition.
It's not just about who eats whom; it's about the subtle balance that top predators maintain. As researchers like Hughes and Castorani suggest, reintroducing or protecting these species could be a key strategy in ecosystem restoration. Their role is not just as hunters, but as guardians of biodiversity and ecological integrity.
Embracing Nature's Ingenious Partnerships
As we've journeyed through the intricate tapestry of marine symbiosis, it's clear that these relationships are not just fascinating quirks of nature, but pivotal elements in the health and resilience of our oceans. From the sea otters' unexpected role in marshland conservation to the complex interplay in estuarine ecosystems, every partnership tells a story of balance and interdependence. It's a reminder that sometimes, the best stewards of the environment are the creatures that inhabit it, and our role is to support and learn from these natural alliances. Whether it's through the restoration of keystone species or the careful management of human impacts, fostering these symbiotic bonds might just be the key to a thriving marine world. So, let's dive in and protect these powerful partnerships, for they hold secrets to sustaining life beneath the waves and beyond.
Frequently Asked Questions
How are sea otters contributing to ecosystem restoration?
Sea otters, as apex predators, play a key role in stabilizing salt marshes by reducing the population of burrowing shore crabs, which in turn slows down erosion rates and supports overall marsh health.
What role do artificial algae play in marine ecosystems?
Artificial algae structures are used to offset habitat loss by providing complex habitats that promote biodiversity and abundance of macroinvertebrate communities, though their effectiveness can vary.
Why are sea otters considered keystone species?
Sea otters are considered keystone species because their presence and predation patterns have a significant cascading effect on the entire food web and ecosystem processes, such as controlling erosion in salt marshes.
Can eating sea urchins help marine conservation?
Yes, aquaculture for sea urchins is seen as a potential solution to restore kelp ecosystems, as urchins feed on kelp and can overrun these habitats if not controlled.
Are sea stars at risk due to climate change?
Sea stars, as keystone predators, are threatened by marine heat waves exacerbated by climate change. While they may build tolerance to some stressful events, rising temperatures pose a significant risk to their survival.
How do beavers affect urban ecosystems?
Once considered pests, beavers are now recognized for their ability to transform urban landscapes by creating wetlands that improve wildlife habitats, water quality, and overall ecosystem health.
What challenges do coastal shellfish face due to climate change?
Coastal shellfish are under pressure from multiple stressors such as hypoxia, acidification, and the broader effects of climate change, which can have additive, synergistic, or antagonistic impacts on their populations.
Why should predators be considered in ecosystem restoration?
Top predators can have a significant structuring role in ecosystems, influencing various ecological processes. Their reintroduction and presence should be considered in decisions regarding the best methods for ecosystem restoration.
